National Geographic History

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FROM THE EDITOR

The Chinese Emperor Who Tried to Cheat Death • Newly translated letters shed light on the dual obsession of China’s first emperor: To reach all corners of his new empire and to live forever.

BOUNDLESS BRUTALITY

CRUDE AND SHAPELESS

Prague’s Protector: The Golem • Strong, solid, and single-minded, golems are legendary protectors in the Jewish tradition. Made of mud and brought to life through ritual, the most famous is the Golem of Prague who patrolled the 16th-century streets of the Jewish ghetto.

“Then the Lord God Formed a Man from the Dust”

THE REAL RABBI LOEW

INTERPRETING “GUERNICA”

The Genius of “Guernica” • While Pablo Picasso’s “Guernica” was inspired by the horrors inflicted by the 1937 fascist bombing of the small town, its howl of terror has grown to stand for atrocities of war experienced all over the world.

Picasso’s Process

DEATH FROM ABOVE

THE PHOENICIANS • In the first millennium B.C. the seafaring Phoenicians’ vast trade empire spanned the Mediterranean. At its core was a vibrant purple fabric worn by powerful kings, the hue courtesy of a dye created from humble sea snails, and worth its weight in gold.

By Land and By Sea: The Strength of Tyre

ANCIENT PURPLE POWER

How Phoenicians Turned Sea Snails Into Gold

PAPER TOWN

Rub-a-dub-dub, Phoenicians Sailed in Tubs

SARGON’S CEDARWOOD

Many Influences, Many Cultures

WHEN ALEXANDER ATTACKED

MYSTERY OF MACEDON • The 1977 discovery of treasure-filled tombs in Greece sparked global fascination with Philip II of Macedon, whose death launched the career of his son Alexander the Great. Historians are sure one of the tombs contains the bones of the murdered King Philip, but which one?

A FATHER’S IMPERIAL LEGACY

GUILT OR GRIEF?

Northern Threat

MACEDON’S MILITARY TREASURES

THE TREASURE TOMBS OF MACEDON • The Museum of the Royal Tombs of Aigai, Greece, conserves the hoard of grave goods found in 1977.

MORE THAN MATRONS • As Rome transitioned from republic to empire, the lives of wealthy Roman women transformed, too. War, money, and politics opened up avenues to women for wielding influence and reshaping their lives.

MOTHERS, HEROINES, RULERS

MOTHERHOOD IN ROME

FROM MATRON TO PATRON

LONG, LEGAL STRUGGLE • Several imperial-era Roman jurists argued that nothing justified unequal treatment of women. Until the wholesale reforms of Justinian in the sixth century, many of these ideas of equality did not gain acceptance.

WORKING WOMEN OF THE EMPIRE • Despite discrimination, there are notable cases of imperial-era women flourishing in traditionally male roles.

THE ALCHEMY PARADOX • With roots in ancient practices and secret arts, alchemy strove to use both science and mysticism to understand the forces of creation. Famous for trying to turn lead into gold, alchemists in the 16th and 17th centuries included the most brilliant minds of the age, bold scientists who through their work paved the path to modern chemistry.

ADVANCES OF ALCHEMY

Collecting Condensation

“AS ABOVE, SO BELOW”

Anxious About Alchemy

ALL THE COLORS OF THE PEACOCK

Michael Maier’s Mysterious Emblems

ACTUAL ALCHEMY • Some alchemical texts describe lab experiments that can be replicated today. Based on notebooks written in the 17th century, Johns Hopkins University professor Lawrence M....